Market-Based Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Legislation: 108th Through 117th Congresses

"Congressional interest in market-based greenhouse gas (GHG) emission control legislation has fluctuated over the past 20 years. Market-based approaches that would address GHG emissions typically involve either a cap-and-trade system or a carbon tax or emissions fee program. Both approaches would place a price—directly or indirectly—on GHG emissions or their inputs, namely fossil fuels. Both would increase the price of fossil fuels, and both would reduce GHG emissions to some degree. Both would allow covered entities to choose the best way to meet their emission requirements or reduce costs, potentially by using market forces to minimize national costs of emission reductions. Preference between the two approaches ultimately depends on which variable policymakers prefer to precisely control—emission levels or emission prices

A primary policy concern with either approach is the economic impacts that may result. Expected energy price increases could have both economy-wide impacts (e.g., on the U.S. gross domestic product) and disproportionate effects on specific industries and particular demographic groups. The degree of these potential effects would depend on a number of factors, including the magnitude, design, and scope of the program and the use of tax or fee revenues or emission allowance values.

As the figure below illustrates, between the 108th and 111th Congresses, most of the introduced bills would have established cap-and-trade systems. Between the 112th and 117th Congresses, most of the introduced bills would have established carbon tax or emissions fee programs. The proposals ranged in the scope of emissions covered from CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion to multiple GHG emissions from a broader array of sources. In addition, the proposals differed by how, to whom, and for what purpose the fee revenues or allowance value would be applied. Some economic analyses indicate that policy choices to distribute the tax, fee, or emission allowance revenue would yield greater economic impacts than the direct impacts of the carbon price..."
Greenhouse Gas 

Casualties from "the 54th"

"The 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment was one of the most celebrated regiments of black soldiers that fought in the Civil War. Known simply as "the 54th," this regiment became famous after the heroic, but ill-fated, assault on Fort Wagner, South Carolina in July, 1863. Leading the direct assault under heavy fire, the 54th suffered enormous casualties before being forced to withdraw.

The courage and sacrifice of the 54th helped to dispel doubt within the Union Army about the fighting ability of black soldiers and earned this regiment undying battlefield glory. Shown here is one of the 54th’s casualty lists with the names of 116 enlisted men who died at Fort Wagner. Of the 600 men that charged Fort Wagner, 272 were killed, wounded, or captured.."
The 54th 

Federal Bureau of Investigation Crime Data Explorer

"The FBI's Crime Data Explorer (CDE) aims to provide transparency, create easier access, and expand awareness of criminal, and noncriminal, law enforcement data sharing; improve accountability for law enforcement; and provide a foundation to help shape public policy with the result of a safer nation. Use the CDE to discover available data through visualizations, download data in .csv format, and other large data files..."
Crime Data 

Foreign Direct Investment in the United States

"Expenditures by foreign direct investors to acquire, establish, or expand U.S. businesses totaled $333.6 billion (preliminary) in 2021. Expenditures increased $192.2 billion from $141.4 billion (revised) in 2020 and were above the annual average of $289.7 billion for 2014–2020. As in previous years, acquisitions of existing businesses accounted for most of total expenditures.

In 2021, expenditures for acquisitions were $330.2 billion, expenditures to establish new U.S. businesses were $1.6 billion, and expenditures to expand existing foreign-owned businesses were $1.8 billion. Planned total expenditures, which include both first-year and planned future expenditures, were $345.8 billion.

Expenditures by industry, country, and state

By industry, expenditures for new direct investment were largest in manufacturing, at $121.3 billion, accounting for 36.4 percent of total expenditures. Within manufacturing, expenditures were largest in chemical manufacturing ($63.2 billion) and computers and electronic products ($30.2 billion). There were also notable expenditures in the real estate and rental and leasing sector ($43.8 billion).

By country of ultimate beneficial owner (UBO), the largest investing country was the United Kingdom, with expenditures of $59.7 billion. The Netherlands ($43.1 billion) was the second-largest investing country, followed by France ($35.3 billion). By region, Europe contributed 70.0 percent of new investment in 2021.

By U.S. state, California received the most investment, totaling $64.1 billion, followed by Massachusetts ($53.8 billion) and New York ($34.2 billion)..."
Foreign investments 

Election Worker Safety and Privacy

"Concerns about election workers’ safety and privacy have been reported following the 2020 election, in news reports and testimony before House and Senate committees. Some election workers have raised concerns about physical safety while performing official duties, as well as more general threats outside the workplace or related psychological effects. These threats, along with a perceived increase in politically motivated job scrutiny, have led some to leave, or consider leaving, their roles.

This Insight provides a brief overview of recent developments, legislative proposals, and policy considerations related to election worker safety and privacy.

Background

Federal law prohibits certain types of intimidation of or interference with election workers, including intimidation to discourage serving as a poll watcher or election official or intimidation as a result of such service (18 U.S.C. §245); interference by members of the Armed Forces with election officials’ exercise of their duties (18 U.S.C. §593); and intimidation for helping voters register (52 U.S.C. §20511) or vote (52 U.S.C. §§10307, 20511). Many states have laws that address other threats to election workers, such as through privacy protections for election commissioners. More general laws—such as prohibitions against voter intimidation (e.g. 52 U.S.C. §§10101, 10307, 20511) or harassing or threatening interstate communications—might also apply to some conduct.

Some state and local officials have responded to recent reports of threats to election workers with administrative action or legislative proposals. Election officials have included local law enforcement in poll worker trainings, for example, and implemented new security measures in their offices. Bills have been introduced in state legislatures to establish new prohibitions or protections, such as a Michiganproposal to prohibit intimidation of election workers and a Washington State bill to extend existing privacy protections to election officials..."
Election workers 

Where Is the U.S. Economy Headed: Soft Landing, Hard Landing, or Stagflation?

"The Economic Recovery So Far

The recovery from the 2020 recession was rapid through the first half of 2021, but the transition to moderate, sustainable economic growth has been choppy, with negative growth in the first quarter of 2022. Moreover, high inflation has complicated the path forward. Since March 2022, the annual change in the Consumer Price Index has been above 8%.

To reduce inflation, the Federal Reserve (Fed) is raising the federal funds rate (a short-term interest rate) to reduce aggregate demand (total spending). Since March, the Fed has raised rates from a range of 0- 0.25% to a range of 1.5-1.75%. This raises the question of how much demand needs to slow to restore low inflation. This Insight discusses three scenarios for what might come next—a soft landing, a hard landing, and stagflation.

Soft Landing?

Fed leadership aspires to restore price stability through a “soft landing,” where growth is moderate but positive, and unemployment rises modestly, if at all. This is reflected in Fed leadership’s medianprojection that inflation will fall to 2.6% in 2023, while unemployment will remain below 4%. Fed Governor Christopher Waller envisions a soft landing where firms reduce job openings instead of laying off workers. Skeptics refer to this scenario as the “immaculate disinflation” because, under standard theory, a sizeable and rapid reduction in inflationary pressures requires an increase in unemployment.

Soft landings are infrequent. Fed Chair Jerome Powell recently argued that soft landings occurred after monetary tightening in 1965, 1984, and 1994, as shown in Figure 1, and that some other recessions, such as in 2020, should not be attributed to tightening. However, inflation was low in 1965 and 1994, and below 5% in 1984.."
U.S. Economy 

ReproductiveRights.Gov

"Your Reproductive Rights

Below you will find information on your right to access care and have it covered by your insurance or other health care coverage if you have it, where to go if you don’t have coverage, and how to get information if you don’t know.

Most health insurance plans – whether you have public (e.g., Medicaid) or private health coverage (e.g., coverage through the Affordable Care Act Marketplace or through your employer) – cover family planning counseling, birth control, and other preventive services at no cost to you..."
Reproductive rights 

Federal Workforce Statistics Sources: OPM and OMB

"According to the Office of Personnel Management (OPM), the federal workforce is composed of an estimated 2.1 million civilian workers. 1 Several federal agencies collect, compile, and publish statistics about this workforce. Sources may vary in their totals due to differences in the methods used to compile these statistics.

For example, some sources rely on “head counts” of employees (OPM), some on total hours worked (such as the Office of Management and Budget [OMB]), some on surveys of employing agencies, and others on self-identification by workers surveyed in their homes..

In addition, federal civilian employee databases may exclude particular departments, agencies, or branches of government. Some may also account for temporary or seasonal employees (such as those employed by the U.S. Census) depending on the time of year the statistics are generated.

This report describes OMB and OPM sources and identifies key differences in methodologies, including data collection. Understanding these sources and their differences will facilitate selecting appropriate data for specific purposes..."
Federal workforce 

Oysters and Vibriosis

"What You Need to Know

• Eating raw oysters and other undercooked seafood can put you at risk for infections, such as vibriosis.

• Vibriosis is caused by some kinds of Vibrio bacteria.

• Most Vibrio infections happen during warmer months, but they can happen anytime.

• An oyster that contains Vibrio doesn’t look, smell, or taste different from any other oyster.

• A way to kill Vibrio in oysters is to cook them properly.

Many people enjoy eating raw oysters, and raw oyster bars are growing in popularity. But eating raw or undercooked oysters and other shellfish can put you at risk for foodborne illness.

Learn about vibriosis, an illness caused by infection with certain kinds of Vibrio bacteria, and steps you can take to protect your health when it comes to oysters and other shellfish.

Vibrio bacteria naturally inhabit coastal waters where oysters live. Because oysters feed by filtering water, Vibrio and other harmful bacteria and viruses can concentrate in their tissues. When someone eats raw or undercooked oysters, germs that might be in the oyster can cause illness.

CDC estimates that about 80,000 people get vibriosis—and 100 people die from it—in the United States every year. Most of these illnesses happen from May through October when water temperatures are warmer. However, you can get sick from eating raw or undercooked oysters during any month of the year, and raw oysters from typically colder waters also can cause vibriosis.

An oyster that contains harmful bacteria doesn’t look, smell, or even taste different from any other oyster. You can kill Vibrio in oysters and certain other shellfish, such as mussels and clams, by cooking them properly..."
Oysters 

Working in Heat

"Heat stress can affect many outdoor and indoor workers. To prevent heat-related illnesses (HRI) and injuries, employers should develop and use a comprehensive heat-related illness prevention program at the workplace.

In occupational settings, heat stress is the combination of the heat your body produces (metabolic heat), environmental factors (for example, temperature and humidity), and clothing and personal protective equipment (PPE). While many workers need to wear PPE for protection from workplace chemical, physical, and biological hazards, PPE can increase the risk for HRIs. PPE can often alter the rate and amount of heat exchange between the skin and air. For example, impermeable materials used for protection against chemical hazards can be very hot to wear, as they trap heat close to the skin and prevent sweat evaporation.

Below are some elements for addressing heat stress that need to be included in workplace HRI prevention programs.

Control of Heat Stress

Employers should reduce workplace heat stress by implementing engineering and work practice controls.

Engineering controls might include those that:

• Increase air velocity (if air temperature is below 95°F).
• Use reflective or heat-absorbing shielding or barriers.
• Reduce steam leaks, wet floors, or humidity.

Work practice controls include the following:

• Implement a buddy system and routinely check workers to ensure they make use of available water and shade, and they do not have symptoms of an HRI.
• Monitor the weather.
• Limit time in heat and/or increase rest time in a cool environment.
• Increase the number of workers per task.
• Require workers to conduct self-monitoring.
• Implement a heat alert program when a heat wave is likely..."
  Heat stress 

Tools and Strategies for Pollinator Protection

"There are many ways to minimize the exposure of bees and other pollinators to pesticides. This page describes some pollinator protection strategies used at the local, state, and federal level to preserve pollinators and their habitats. These strategies include Best Management Practices (BMPs), Managed Pollinator Protection Plans (MP3s), and mitigation measures to reduce pesticide exposure. Utilizing these practices can help protect pollinators and the plants who depend on them. 

EPA evaluates pesticides (e.g., insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, disinfectants, and biological products) for their risk to human health and the environment, including pollinator species. To assess risk to bees, EPA generally requires a suite of tests which follow methods outlined in EPA’s Pollinator Risk Assessment Guidance documents Pollinator Risk Assessment Guidance documents. EPA’s risk assessments for pollinators inform regulatory decisions on the proper use, storage, and disposal instructions on pesticide labels. These labels dictate how and when specific pesticides can be used and how risks can be mitigated.

Learn more about how EPA assesses risks to pollinators..."
Pollinators 

50 Years of Title IX

"As a college athlete playing soccer, I learned some important lessons from working towards a common goal with my teammates and navigating our wins and losses together. We were afforded those meaningful experiences on the field because of the impact of Title IX, which dramatically increased participation in – and available funding for – women's athletics in publicly funded schools.

June 23 marks the 50th anniversary of the day that Title IX of the Education Amendments was signed into law. What began as a series of hearings to explore the discrimination women faced at educational institutions grew into a movement for equal opportunity in classrooms, playing fields and boardrooms. Until that day not so long ago, it was perfectly legal for federally funded schools and education programs and activities to discriminate against women and girls on the basis of sex. Title IX made this illegal, and in doing so, opened up a new world of opportunity for the generations of women since – including me.

Many of us see Title IX’s impact in women’s sports as a significant accomplishment, and it is. But there are still areas for improvement and progress – namely, ensuring real equal funding for women’s sports and protecting the rights of transgender women and girl athletes. Title IX’s reach has gone much further than sports, impacting gender inclusivity in education and society at large.

When Title IX passed, women were still the minority at college graduations. In 1972 only 44% of bachelor’s, 40% of master’s, and 11% of doctorate degrees were awarded to women. Just 10 years later in 1982, women reached parity with men in obtaining undergraduate degrees. By the 2019-2020 school year, women far outpaced men at every level of educational attainment. Women earned 58% of bachelor’s, 61% of master’s, and 55% of doctorate degrees awarded that year..."
Title 1X 

Short- and Long-Term Solutions to Extreme Drought in the Western United States”

"Statement of, Charles V. Stern,  Specialist in Natural Resources Policy,  Before Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate Hearing on
“Short- and Long-Term Solutions to Extreme Drought in the Western United States”

Chairman Manchin, Ranking Member Barrasso, and Members of the committee, thank you for inviting the Congressional Research Service (CRS) to provide testimony on short and long-term solutions to extreme drought in the western United States. My name is Charles Stern. I am a Specialist in Natural Resources Policy at CRS.

In serving Congress on a nonpartisan and objective basis, CRS takes no position on legislation and makes no recommendations. CRS remains available to assist the committee in its development and consideration of water resource and other legislation.

My comments today will largely focus on drought not in any one specific location, but as a broader policy issue. I will start by providing background and context on drought in general, including abbreviated information on the status of the current drought in the western United States and prospects for future droughts. I will then provide a broad survey of federal drought policy and authorities, along with a summary of some current proposals for new and modified approaches to address drought.

Background

Drought is a natural hazard with significant economic, social, and ecological consequences. Drought broadly refers to periods of substantially below-average moisture conditions. Generally, there four drought classifications:

 Meteorological drought is typically the degree of dryness, in comparison to a “normal” or average amount of dryness and the duration of a dry period. Meteorological drought is region-specific, because precipitation deficiency varies regionally.
 Hydrological drought reflects reduced surface and subsurface water supplies, such as streamflows, reservoir and lake levels, snowpack, and groundwater. The frequency and severity of this type of drought are measured on a watershed or river basin scale.
 Agricultural and ecological drought links characteristics of meteorological or hydrological drought to agricultural and ecological effects (such as plant-water-stress contributions to tree mortality), often using precipitation shortfalls, evapotranspiration differences, 2 soil moisture deficits, reduced groundwater or reservoir levels, and other variables.  Socioeconomic drought associates the “supply and demand of some economic goods with elements of meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural drought.”

The U.S. Drought Monitor—a partnership between federal and nonfederal entities—uses multiple indicators and indexes, together with expert opinion and stakeholder information, to estimate the intensity and effects of ongoing drought conditions. This information is illustrated weekly in maps. The U.S. Drought Monitor defines “drought” as “a moisture deficit bad enough to have social, environmental or economic effects.”3 It depicts drought intensity in five categories with increasing intensity of drought— D0 (abnormally dry), D1 (moderate), D2 (severe), D3 (extreme), and D4 (exceptional). The U.S. Drought
Monitor shows broad-scale regional drought conditions, but not necessarily drought circumstances at the local scale. The estimated drought intensity reported by the U.S. Drought Monitor can serve as a trigger for local, state, and federal responses to drought..."
Extreme Drought 

Food Safety for Buffets and Parties

"What You Need to Know

• Separate raw meat, chicken and other poultry, seafood, and eggs from ready-to-eat foods.
• Use a food thermometer to make sure foods are cooked to a temperature hot enough to kill germs.
• Germs that can make you sick grow quickly when food is in the “Danger Zone,” between 40°F and 140°F.
• Refrigerate leftovers within 2 hours of cooking. Divide leftovers into smaller portions to cool faster.

Gathering friends and family is fun, but beware of uninvited party guests. Foodborne germs can crash your buffet and make people sick with food poisoning. When cooking, preparing, or serving food for large groups, it’s important to keep food safe. Follow these steps to keep foodborne germs from spoiling your party.

Keep It Clean

• Wash your hands with soap and running water for at least 20 seconds before preparing, eating, or handling food. Wash your hands after using the bathroom and touching pets.
• Wash your cutting boards, dishes, utensils, and countertops with hot, soapy water or in the dishwasher after preparing each food item.

Separate Raw Meat From Other Foods

• Separateexternal icon raw meat, chicken and other poultry, seafood, and eggs from foods that won’t be cooked before eating, such as fruit, salad greens, deli salads, and bread.
  • Keep raw meat, chicken and other poultry, seafood, and eggs separate from other foods when shopping for groceries and in the refrigerator.
  • Use separate cutting boards, plates, and knives for fresh fruits and vegetables and for raw meat, chicken and other poultry, seafood, and eggs.

Cook to a Safe Temperature

• Use a food thermometer to make sure foods are cooked to an internal temperature hot enough to kill germs. Check this chart for recommended temperaturesexternal icon.
• Follow recommended microwave cooking and standing times.external icon
  • Cold spots—areas that are not completely cooked when microwaved—can provide a hiding place for germs.
  • Always follow cooking instructions and directions for standing time, which is the extra time food should rest to finish cooking.

Serve Foods Safely

• If preparing food in advance, divide cooked food into shallow containersexternal icon and store in a refrigerator or freezer. This encourages rapid, even cooling.
• Keep hot foods hot at 140°F or warmer. Use slow cookers, chafing dishes, and warming trays to keep food hot on the buffet table.
• Keep cold foods cold at 40°F or below. Use small serving trays and replace often with fresh platters from the refrigerator, or place serving dishes in bowls of ice so they stay chilled.
• For picnics and other outdoor meals, keep cold food in a cooler filled with ice or frozen gel packs until just before serving.
• Catering or getting food delivered? Make sure food that is catered or delivered stays at a safe temperature..."
  Buffets and parties 

Avoid Harmful Algae and Cyanobacteria

"Harmful algae and cyanobacteria, sometimes called blue-green algae, can produce toxins (poisons) that can make people and animals sick and affect the environment. Learn more about them to keep you, your family, and your pets safe.

Algae and cyanobacteria are simple, plant-like organisms that live in water. Algae and cyanobacteria can quickly grow out of control, or “bloom.”

Blooms can occur in fresh water, salt water, and brackish (a mixture of fresh and salt) water around the world. Blooms sometimes look like foam, scum, mats, or paint on the surface of the water. They can even make the water appear different colors, including green, blue, red, or brown.

Blooms are more likely when water is warm, slow-moving, and full of nutrients such as nitrogen or phosphorous. Nutrients get into water when fertilizer, sewage, or runoff from cities and industrial buildings washes into lakes, rivers, or oceans—for example, during rainstorms.

Blooms of algae or cyanobacteria can harm people, animals, or the environment if the blooms

• Make toxins
• Become too dense
• Use up the oxygen in the water
• Release harmful gases

Effects of climate change, such as warmer water, might be making blooms worse.

How People and Animals Get Sick

People and animals (including pets, livestock, and wildlife) can get sick when they have contact with water or food that contains certain types of algae, cyanobacteria, or their toxins.

People and animals can get sick if they

• Swim, wade, or play in or near contaminated water
• Eat contaminated fish, shellfish, or supplements
• Drink contaminated water

Illnesses and symptoms can vary depending on how a person or animal was exposed (came into contact with algae, cyanobacteria, or their toxins), how long they were exposed, which type of toxin was present, and how much toxin was present..."
Algae and Cyanobaceria