Fifth National Climate Assessment

"The Fifth National Climate Assessment (NCA5) analyzes the impacts of climate and global change in the United States.

The development of NCA5 was overseen by a Federal Steering Committee appointed by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research (SGCR) and comprising representatives from USGCRP agencies. NOAA, as the administrative agency for NCA5, is responsible for establishing procedures for the report, releasing Federal Register Notices, and certifying the report meets Information Quality Act and Evidence Act standards. 

The process is designed to be transparent and inclusive, offering multiple opportunities for public participation. As in previous assessments, NCA5 underwent an extensive, multi-phase process of internal and external review from federal agency experts, the general public, and external peer review by a panel of experts established by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. This approach is designed to result in a report that is authoritative, timely, relevant, and policy neutral; valued by authors and users; accessible to the widest possible audience; and fully compliant with the GCRA and other applicable laws and policies..."
National Climate Assessment 

Is That Climate Change? The Science of Extreme Event Attribution

"Climate change attribution is the study of whether, or to what degree, human influence may have contributed to extreme climate or weather events. Scientists can now estimate whether human activities have influenced extreme weather or climate events and changed how likely they are to occur. This is known as the science of climate change attribution.

Attributions of extreme weather to human-induced climate change may affect how policymakers, organizations, and individuals understand and manage associated risks, with the potential benefit of avoiding future costs. The interpretation and evaluation of attribution findings have been part of the discussion of policy on wildfires, heat waves, climate change, and disaster responses, among other issues. Understanding the attribution process and its uncertainties may be helpful in understanding the potential uses and limitations of climate attribution claims.

Before the development of extreme event attribution methods, there was a scientific consensus that, while attribution of global climate trends was possible, attribution of individual events was not possible. This changed with the development of statistical methods to determine the likelihood that human influence had changed the frequency or severity of extreme events, and a better understanding of the connections between components of the Earth’s climate system.

Several approaches to extreme event attribution have been developed, including a risk-based approach, which seeks to estimate human-influenced changes in the probability of an extreme event, and a storyline approach, which seeks to estimate the relative contribution of specific natural and human causes to an extreme event. The two approaches use many of the same analytic tools. Researchers may study different aspects of the same event, or use differing yet valid analytic methods and find results that seem inconsistent.

Numerous attribution studies have been completed on a wide range of extreme events, including heavy rainfall, heat waves, sea ice extent, consecutive dry days, droughts, and others. Results have included instances where changes in event probability were attributed to human influence, instances where evidence of human influence was not found, and instances where the results were inconclusive. For example, a study of record high May 2017 temperatures in South Korea found that the increased probability of such an event was due to human influence, while a study of a 2011 drought/heat wave in Texas did not find evidence of human influence. In recent years, domestic litigation has been brought by states and municipalities seeking compensation for damage caused by adverse climate impacts. Extreme event attribution may become important in this type of litigation in order to establish liability..."
Climate Change 

The Cllimate Explorer

"THE CLIMATE EXPLORER

Explore how climate is projected to change in any county in
the United States..."

Climate 

Wisconsin cave holds tantalizing clues to ancient climate changes, future shifts

"Even in their dark isolation from the atmosphere above, caves can hold a rich archive of local climate conditions and how they've shifted over the eons. Formed over tens of thousands of years, speleothems — rock formations unique to caves better known as stalagmites and stalactites — hold secrets to the ancient environments in which they formed.

A U.S. National Science Foundation-supported study of a stalagmite found in a cave in southern Wisconsin reveals previously undetected history of the local climate going back thousands of years. The findings provide strong evidence that a series of massive and abrupt warming events that punctuated the most recent ice age likely enveloped vast swaths of the Northern Hemisphere.

Researchers analyzed a specialized microscope image of annual growth bands in the speleothem. The bright and dark bands represent differences in organic acid content. The difference in organic acid content from dripwater is due to seasonal changes in the overlying soil.

The research, conducted by a team of scientists at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, appears in the journal Nature Geoscience. It's the first study to identify a possible link between ice age warm-ups recorded in the Greenland ice sheet — known as Dansgaard-Oeschger events — and climate records from deep in the interior of central North America.

"This is the only study in this area of the world's recording of these abrupt climate events during the last glacial period," says co-author Cameron Batchelor of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

The study is based on a detailed chemical and physical analysis of a stalagmite that formed in the Cave of the Mounds, a tourist attraction and educational destination. The stalagmite the team analyzed grew extremely slowly — taking roughly 20,000 years to reach the length of a human pinky finger..."
Caves and climate change 

Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in the United States: A Focus on Six Impacts

"Citation:

Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in the United States: A Focus on Six Impacts. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 2021.

Impact/Purpose:

This report contributes to a better understanding of the degree to which four socially vulnerable populations— defined based on income, educational attainment, race and ethnicity, and age- may be more exposed to the highest impacts of climate change in six categories.

Description:

Across the U.S., some individuals and communities are more susceptible to disproportionate harm from climate change due to differences in exposure and vulnerability to climate hazards. This report investigates the projected risks of climate change to socially vulnerable populations in the U.S. across six impact sectors: air quality, heat stress, labor, roads, coastal flooding, and inland flooding. (EPA 430-R-21-003)

URLs/Downloads:

Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in the United States: A Focus on Six Impacts

Response to Comments   (PDF, 21 pp,  925 KB,  about PDF)

Peer Review Report   (PDF, 12 pp,  1290 KB,  about PDF).."
Climate Change an Social Responsibility 

Climate Mapping for Resilience and Adaptation

"Today, the Biden-Harris Administration is launching a website that, for the first time, provides a live dashboard to help communities see extreme weather and other hazards from climate change they are facing, while also providing maps projecting how each community could be impacted in the future. The new Climate Mapping for Resilience and Adaptation portal will help state, local, Tribal, and territorial governments and leaders better track real-time impacts and access federal resources for long-term planning.

Americans are feeling the intensifying impacts of the climate crisis—from extreme heat across the country, including the dangerous “heat dome” gripping California this week; record-breaking floods across the South and Midwest; Western drought straining the water supplies that millions depend on; and more wildfires threatening communities. Last year, the 20 largest climate-related disasters alone took hundreds of lives, caused untold hardships, and racked up more than $150 billion in damages.

In addition to providing more detailed, location-specific data about climate threats, the new portal also brings together multiple federal information sources and funding opportunities to help communities better prepare for and respond to climate impacts—including historic resilience funding from the President’s Bipartisan Infrastructure Law for states and communities around the country. Together with the Inflation Reduction Act, the Biden-Harris Administration is providing historic levels of support to expand resilience programs, protect U.S. communities, economies, and infrastructure from the worsening impacts of climate change, and improve the nation’s climate mapping and data capabilities.

Climate Mapping 

Overview of the SEC Climate Risk Disclosure Proposed Rule

"On March 21, 2022, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) voted 3-1 to issue sweeping proposed climate-related disclosure rules for public companies. In issuing the proposed rules, the SEC cited its existing statutory authorities under the federal securities laws— specifically, the Securities Act of 1933 (P.L. 73-22) and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (P.L. 73-291). The proposal represents a more prescriptive and detailed approach to climate-related disclosures relative to the existing broad, principles-based climate-related disclosure regime embodied in the SEC’s 2010 “Guidance Regarding Disclosure Related to Climate Change.” Among other things, it would require all public companies, as a growing number voluntarily do, to report on their direct greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and under certain circumstances their upstream and downstream GHG emissions.

Public companies would also be required to report on the impacts of climate-related natural events and transitional activities to mitigate such impacts on their consolidated financial statements. According to the SEC, both the current and proposed disclosure regimes are grounded in the federal securities laws’ concept of materiality—the notion that required disclosures should encompass the types of information that investors consider important when they make investment or corporate voting decisions..."
Climate risk disclosure 

IPCC Sixth Assessment Report

[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] 

"The evidence is clear: the time for action is now. We can halve emissions by 2030.

GENEVA, Apr 4 – In 2010-2019 average annual global greenhouse gas emissions were at their highest levels in human history, but the rate of growth has slowed. Without immediate and deep emissions reductions across all sectors, limiting global warming to 1.5°C is beyond reach. However, there is increasing evidence of climate action, said scientists in the latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report released today.

Since 2010, there have been sustained decreases of up to 85% in the costs of solar and wind energy, and batteries. An increasing range of policies and laws have enhanced energy efficiency, reduced rates of deforestation and accelerated the deployment of renewable energy.

“We are at a crossroads. The decisions we make now can secure a liveable future. We have the tools and know-how required to limit warming,” said IPCC Chair Hoesung Lee.  “I am encouraged by climate action being taken in many countries. There are policies, regulations and market instruments that are proving effective.  If these are scaled up and applied more widely and equitably, they can support deep emissions reductions and stimulate innovation.”

The Summary for Policymakers of the IPCC Working Group III report, Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of climate change was approved on April 4 2022, by 195 member governments of the IPCC, through a virtual approval session that started on March 21. It is the third instalment of the IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), which will be completed this year..."
Climate Assessment Report 

FEMA Hazard Mitigation: A First Step Toward Climate Adaptation

"FEMA Hazard Mitigation: A First Step Toward Climate Adaptation

With the increasing severity and frequency of natural disasters, attributed at least in part to climate change, policymakers often view mitigation funding as a way to control disaster-related spending. The importance of federal mitigation funding is illustrated by a recent study that looked at the impacts of 23 years of federal mitigation grants and found that for every $1 invested by federal grant programs, society as a whole saved $6 due to reduced future losses.

FEMA has a lead role in guiding nationwide mitigation of extreme weather events, including those resulting from the impacts of climate change. In particular, FEMA administers the federal government’s most significant grant programs for pre-and post-disaster mitigation. FEMA has identified hazard mitigation as one of the main ways in which the agency will enhance resilience to the effects of climate change and lead federal climate change adaptation efforts.

FEMA funds mitigation measures through a number of programs:
 the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP);
 the Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities grant program (BRIC);
 the Flood Mitigation Assistance grant program (FMA);
 the STORM Act State Revolving Loan Program for Hazard Mitigation;
 Public Assistance (PA); and
 Individual Assistance (IA).

Three of these programs are available after a disaster (HMGP, PA, and IA), while the other three (BRIC, FMA, STORM Act) provide pre-disaster mitigation funding for use before an event occurs or in anticipation of an incident. Historically, post-disaster mitigation has received significantly more funding than pre-disaster mitigation. Between 1996 and 2019, approximately $1.86 billion was awarded for FMA grants, $1.92 billion was awarded for PDM grants (the predecessor to BRIC), and $22.4 billion was awarded in HMGP funding. Funding for pre-disaster mitigation has increased recently through the Disaster Recovery Reform Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-24) and the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58). Increased funding for pre-disaster mitigation is more essential in the context of climate change, as many projected climate impacts have yet to occur.

This report gives an overview of FEMA funding for mitigation, including issues related to equity, and suggests considerations for Congress that may enhance FEMA’s support for hazard mitigation and climate adaptation.."
FEMA and climate 

U.S. Climate Change Policy

"The greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere trap radiant energy, warming earth’s surface and oceans. Scientific assessments conclude that GHGs very likely have been the main driver of warming of the earth’s lower atmosphere since 1979. The most recent global assessment projected that surface temperature would continue to rise until at least mid-century even under the lowest GHG emission scenarios considered. A range of actions to mitigate GHG emissions and the risks of climate change (i.e., for adaptation or resilience) are under way or being developed on the international, national, and subnational levels. U.S. federal policymakers and stakeholders have different viewpoints regarding what, if anything, to do about future climate change and related impacts.

Brief History of U.S. Climate Policy

Historically, the United States has demonstrated varying approaches and intent with regard to addressing climate change generally and to participating in GHG abatement under the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). International negotiations led to, among other agreements, the adoption of the Paris Agreement (PA) in 2015. President Obama accepted the PA without submitting it to the Senate for advice and consent, and the United States became a Party to the agreement when the PA entered into force in 2016. President Trump announced U.S. withdrawal from the PA in June 2017, which became effective in November 2020. President Biden again accepted the PA, and the United States became a Party on February 19, 2021.

U.S. climate change policy has involved actions implemented under various legal authorities. Prior to 2007, the federal government implemented voluntary programs to address climate change and regulatory programs that indirectly limited GHG emission increases from vehicles, appliances and equipment, and buildings. A shift toward direct regulation of GHG emissions occurred following the 2007 decision in Massachusetts v. EPA, in which the Supreme Court found that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has authority to regulate GHG emissions from motor vehicles as air pollutants under the Clean Air Act. EPA subsequently issued rules to limit GHGs from various sources, although not all have been implemented. State and local governments have also taken a variety of actions, including emission controls on power plants and vehicles and building codes.

U.S. Legislation

Members of Congress have historically expressed a range of perspectives regarding climate change issues. Legislative proposals have included carbon pricing frameworks (e.g., carbon taxes or cap-and-trade programs), sectoral approaches such as a clean energy standard, research funding or tax policies that support GHG-abating technology development and deployment, efforts to increase adaptation, and international cooperation. On the other hand, introduced resolutions have expressed that the multisector carbon pricing approaches are not in the economic interests of the United States. Votes on comprehensive climate change policy have been relatively rare in either chamber of Congress. Examples of enacted legislation involving climate change issues include tax incentives to promote renewable energy sources and carbon capture and sequestration efforts.

Executive Branch Approach to Climate Change

President Biden announced a new GHG target for the United States: to reduce net GHG emissions by 50%-52% below 2005 levels by 2030. The Administration has also centralized executive branch organizations to identify and coordinate climate related actions, and issued directives with a view toward decisions that support meeting the Administration’s GHG reduction targets.

Issues for Congress

Congress may consider issues concerning U.S. GHG targets, policy approaches, and funding. For example, U.S. participation in the PA raises issues that Congress may consider concerning the ambition, relative level of effort, and performance of other parties’ GHG mitigation, adaptation, technology, and financing associated with the PA. Differences in parties’ GHG policies may have implications for trade. For example, several national governments and the EU have discussed imposing border carbon adjustments(i.e., tariffs) on imported goods from countries that do not make similarly ambitious efforts to reduce GHG emissions..."
Climate change policy 

Climate Change and International Responses Increasing Challenges to US National Security Through 2040

"We assess that climate change will increasingly exacerbate risks to US national security interests as the physical impacts increase and geopolitical tensions mount about how to respond to the challenge. Global momentum is growing for more ambitious greenhouse gas emissions reductions, but current policies and pledges are insufficient to meet the Paris Agreement goals. Countries are arguing about who should act sooner and competing to control the growing clean energy transition. Intensifying physical effects will exacerbate geopolitical flashpoints, particularly after 2030, and key countries and regions will face increasing risks of instability and need for humanitarian assistance.

• As a baseline, the IC uses the US Federal Scientific community’s high confidence in global projections of temperature increase and moderate confidence in regional projections of the intensity of extreme weather and other effects during the next two decades. Global temperatures have increased 1.1˚C since pre-industrial times and most likely will add 0.4˚C to reach 1.5˚C around 2030.

• The IC has moderate confidence in the pace of decarbonization and low to moderate confidence in how physical climate impacts will affect US national security interests and the nature of geopolitical conflict, given the complex dimensions of human and state decisionmaking.

Key Judgment 1:

Geopolitical tensions are likely to grow as countries increasingly argue about how to accelerate the reductions in net greenhouse gas emissions that will be needed to meet the Paris Agreement goals. Debate will center on who bears more responsibility to act and to pay—and how quickly—and countries will compete to control resources and dominate new technologies needed for the clean energy transition. Most countries will face difficult economic choices and probably will count on technological breakthroughs to rapidly reduce their net emissions later. China and India will play critical roles in determining the trajectory of temperature rise.

Key Judgment 2:

The increasing physical effects of climate change are likely to exacerbate cross-border geopolitical flashpoints as states take steps to secure their interests. The reduction in sea ice already is amplifying strategic competition in the Arctic over access to its natural resources. Elsewhere, as temperatures rise and more extreme effects manifest, there is a growing risk of conflict over water and migration, particularly after 2030, and an increasing chance that countries will unilaterally test and deploy large-scale solar geoengineering—creating a new area of disputes.

Key Judgment 3:

Scientific forecasts indicate that intensifying physical effects of climate change out to 2040 and beyond will be most acutely felt in developing countries, which we assess are also the least able to adapt to such changes. These physical effects will increase the potential for instability and possibly internal conflict in these countries, in some cases creating additional demands on US diplomatic, economic, humanitarian, and military resources. Despite geographic and financial resource advantages, the United States and partners face costly challenges that will become more difficult to manage without concerted effort to reduce emissions and cap warming.."
Climate change and national security 

Drought in the United States: Science, Policy, and Selected Federal Authorities

"Drought―a deficiency of moisture that results in adverse effects―occurs to some extent almost every year in areas of the United States. Droughts can simultaneously reduce available water supplies and increase demands for water. Drought has the potential to affect economic and environmental conditions on local, regional, and national scales, as well as to cause disruptions in water supplies for households and communities.

Droughts are a component of climate variability and may be seasonal, multiyear, or multi-decadal in duration. According to an August 2021 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report on the physical science of climate change, variable precipitation and rising temperatures are intensifying droughts in some U.S. regions. According to the report, certain types of droughts, such as those causing agricultural impacts, are expected to be more likely in the western and central regions of the United States in the future.

The federal government generally defers to state primacy in surface and groundwater allocation, and states and local entities typically lead efforts to prepare for drought. Multiple federal agencies contribute to these efforts to predict, plan for, and respond to drought. The federal government, and in particular the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), plays a key role in researching and monitoring drought through the National Integrated Drought Information System (NIDIS) and the U.S. Drought Monitor. Other federal agencies, such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), also research and monitor drought factors and conditions. The USDA provides the primary federal financial aid to lessen the impacts of drought and compensate for agricultural production loss after drought onset.

Congress has authorized federal assistance for other aspects of drought, but these programs generally are limited in scope. In localities or watersheds with major projects managed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation, which operates exclusively in the 17 arid western states) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE, which operates nationwide), the federal role in water management is more direct and can be especially controversial during times of drought, when multiple users compete for water. Congress has directed both Reclamation and USACE to plan for future droughts at federally authorized projects. Other federal programs, such as those supporting non federal efforts to develop water conservation, water reuse and recycling, rural water supplies, or other municipal and industrial water supplies, may prioritize projects that lessen the impacts of drought even when these programs do not focus exclusively on drought.

Severe drought in California from 2012 to 2016, as well as widespread drought in the western United States in 2021 and other recent events, has raised the profile of drought and led to increasing congressional and administrative proposals to prepare for and respond to its impacts. Congressional interest in drought may include new and amended authorities for drought planning and response; emergency appropriations to alleviate drought impacts and enhance related activities; and oversight of ongoing federal drought science, preparedness, and management efforts..."
Drought 

AR6 Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis

"The Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report addresses the most up-to-date physical understanding of the climate system and climate change, bringing together the latest advances in climate science, and combining multiple lines of evidence from paleoclimate, observations, process understanding, and global and regional climate simulations.

Summary for Policymakers

The Summary for Policymakers (SPM) provides a high-level summary of the understanding of the current state of the climate, including how it is changing and the role of human influence, and the state of knowledge about possible climate futures, climate information relevant to regions and sectors, and limiting human-induced climate change. (39 pages)

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Technical Summary

The Technical Summary (TS) is designed to bridge between the comprehensive assessment of the Working Group I Chapters and its Summary for Policymakers (SPM). It is primarily built from the Executive Summaries of the individual chapters and atlas and provides a synthesis of key findings based on multiple lines of evidence. (150 pages)

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Full report

The thirteen chapters of the Working Group I report provide an assessment of the current evidence on the physical science of climate change, knowledge evaluation gained from observations, reanalyses, paleoclimate archives and climate model simulations, as well as physical, chemical and biological climate processes. (1300 pages?).."

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 UN Climate Change Report 2021 

The Essential Principles of Climate Literacy

"Climate Literacy: The Essential Principles of Climate Science presents information that is deemed important for individuals and communities to know and understand about Earth’s climate, impacts of climate change, and approaches to adaptation or mitigation.  Principles in the guide can serve as discussion starters or launching points for scientific inquiry. The guide aims to promote greater climate science literacy by providing this educational framework of principles and concepts. The guide can also serve educators who teach climate science as a way to meet content standards in their science curricula.

Teaching Climate

Climate science and energy are complex topics, with rapidly developing science and technology and the potential for controversy. How can educators effectively bring these important subjects into their classrooms? There are many ways to approach climate and energy depending on the grade level, course topics and instructional method. Yet no matter the pedagogic setting, using a literacy-based approach can provide a sound foundation to build learners' understanding of these topics.   The Teaching Climate section will support the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) Implementation through an integrated Earth system science approach in K-12 education.  

The following set of climate literacy principles provides a framework for teaching the science behind these issues. Each summary links to a more detailed discussion of what makes the topic important, why it can be challenging to teach, and suggestions for grade-level specific teaching strategies and links to relevant teaching materials..."
Climate Literacy 

Heat stress in U.S. may double by century's end

"Periods of extremely high heat are projected to double across the lower 48 states by 2100 if the world continues to emit high levels of greenhouse gases, according to a new study in Earth's Future, an American Geophysical Union journal.

The heat stress will be felt most strongly in areas with growing populations. The Pacific Northwest, central California and the Great Lakes region could experience as much as a threefold increase compared to the past 40 years. Heat stress occurs when both the temperature and relative humidity get high enough that the human body can't rid itself of the excess heat, leading to strokes, heat cramps and other health problems.

"Without doing any mitigation strategies, the impact of heat stress is likely to increase," said Ashok Mishra, a civil engineer at Clemson University and an author of the U.S. National Science Foundation-funded study.

Human-driven climate change is leading to an average increase in temperatures across the world. However, people don't necessarily notice a slow, even warming as much as an extreme event.

Mishra and co-authors wanted to see how heat stress would increase at the same time as a general increase in temperature and relative humidity. They assumed that while humans may experience higher temperatures on average in many areas, people will acclimatize to the new normal, but extremely high heat index peaks, above even the yearly median values, will continue to have negative impacts on human health.

While previous research has usually examined how extreme heat events may increase in severity, frequency and duration, most studies have looked at one of these in isolation. Mishra and his colleagues calculated how all these might increase together in the future under a high emissions scenario..."
Heat stress 

Supreme Court Ruling May Affect the Fate of Climate Change Liability Suits

"On May 17, 2021, the Supreme Court issued a ruling that could delay climate liability suits—that is, lawsuits seeking damages for alleged climate change-related injuries that result from selling and producing fossil fuel products. In BP p.l.c. v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore, the Court considered the scope of judicial review of orders that transfer a lawsuit from federal to state court. The Court expanded the scope of appellate review of orders remanding climate liability cases to state court, a holding that will likely postpone judicial review of the merits of these suits.

Legal challenges over the appropriate court venue may affect the law and precedent that is applied in more than 20 climate liability suits filed by state and local governments against fossil fuel producers in state courts. This Legal Sidebar reviews the background of the Baltimore case, the Supreme Court’s ruling, its potential effect on climate liability suits, and considerations for Congress.

Removal from State to Federal Court

The Baltimore case arose from lower court decisions related to whether climate liability suits belong in state or federal court. Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution limits federal courts’ jurisdiction to cases involving federal statutes, the Constitution, or treaties.

A defendant may remove (transfer) a suit brought in state court to a federal district court if it falls with the federal court’s jurisdiction. If the plaintiff appeals the defendant’s removal action, a federal court can remand the case to state court if it concludes that the suit was improperly removed. Under 28 U.S.C. §1447(d), such remand orders are not subject to appellate review.

Congress established two exceptions to the Section 1447(d) bar on appellate review of remand orders. In 1964, Congress permitted appellate review of remand orders if the state case was removed to federal court under the civil rights removal statute, 28 U.S.C. § 1443, which permits removal to federal court of suits in which “equal civil rights of citizens” cannot be enforced in state court. In 2011, Congress extended the exception to allow appellate review of removal orders under the federal officer removal statute, 28 U.S.C.§ 1442, which authorizes the removal of state cases to federal court against any officer or agency of the United States for any act related to federal authority. It is this removal statute that provided a mechanism for the Supreme Court to review the Baltimore case..."
Supreme Court and climate change 

Climate Change Indicators in the United States CONTACT US

"About EPA's Indicators

The Earth's climate is changing. Temperatures are rising, snow and rainfall patterns are shifting, and more extreme climate events – like heavy rainstorms and record high temperatures – are already happening. Many of these observed changes are linked to the rising levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, caused by human activities.

EPA partners with more than 50 data contributors from various government agencies, academic institutions, and other organizations to compile a key set of indicators related to the causes and effects of climate change. These indicators also provide important input to the National Climate Assessment and other efforts to understand and track the science and impacts of climate change. Explore the indicators below. Learn more about EPA's indicators..."
Climate change indicators 

Climate change and the 1991-2020 U.S. Climate Normals

"As soon as the 2021 New Year’s celebrations were over, the calls and questions started coming in from weather watchers: When will NOAA release the new U.S. Climate Normals? The Normals are 30-year averages of key climate observations made at weather stations and corrected for bad or missing values and station changes over time. From the daily weather report to seasonal forecasts, the Normals are the basis for judging how temperature, rainfall, and other climate conditions compare to what’s normal for a given location in today’s climate.

For the past decade, the Normals have been based on weather observations from 1981 to 2010. In early May, climate experts at NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information will be releasing an updated collection—hourly, daily, monthly, and annual Normals for thousands of U.S. locations, states, regions—based on the weather experienced from 1991 to 2020.

But what about global warming?

Alongside the questions about when the new Normals will be released (first week of May), we’ve gotten a lot of questions about the Normals and global warming. Is global warming affecting the Normals? (Yes). Are the Normals adjusted to “subtract out” global warming? (No.)  So the new normal reflects our changing climate? (Yes). Then how do we keep track of what used to be normal? (Different analyses.)

The last update of the Normals took place in 2011, when the baseline shifted from 1971-2000 to 1981-2010. Among the highlights of the rollout was the creation of a map showing how climate-related planting zones across the contiguous United States had shifted northward in latitude and upward in elevation. It was a clear signal that normal overnight low temperatures across the country were warmer than they used to be.

Changes in U.S. climate-related planting zones between the 1971-2000 Normals and the 1981-2010 Normals. Many places' coldest temperatures of the year grew warmer between the two periods, leading to a shift in plant hardiness zones. NOAA Climate.gov, based on data from NCEI. Explore an interactive map.

 The planting zone maps emphasized a key point about the Normals and climate change: the once-per-decade update means these products gradually come to reflect the “new normal” of climate change caused by global warming. What’s normal today is often very different than what was normal 50 or 100 years ago. This gradual adjustment is the point: the purpose of the Normals is to provide context on what climate is like today, not how it’s changing over time..."
Climate change