Scope of CDC Authority Under Section 361 of the Public Health Service Act (PHSA)

"Since the beginning of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, all levels of government have grappled with how to stem the spread of the disease. Until the recent authorization of several COVID-19 vaccines, community mitigation activities (such as social distancing and use of face covering), combined with traditional tools of communicable disease control(such as testing, contact tracing, quarantine, and isolation)—have been the primary strategies used to reduce or prevent COVID-19 transmission.

Under the United States’ federalist system, states and the federal government share regulatory authority over public health matters, with states traditionally exercising the bulk of authority in this area. Consistent with this framework, states and localities have been at the leading edge of the United States’ pandemic response in many respects. For instance, to varying degrees, they issued mandates aimed at promoting the relevant public health measures, including temporary stay-at-home orders, restrictions on public gatherings, requirements to wear face coverings under specified circumstances, and quarantine requirements for out-of-state travelers. Because adherence to some of these measures—particularly ones that place restrictions on business operations—resulted in income losses for their residents and businesses, states have also issued orders aimed at alleviating the pandemic’s associated economic impact. For example, many states temporarily halted evictions or provided other housing support to assist households that have experienced pandemic-related income losses that rendered them unable to pay rent. The federal government’s pandemic response to date includes providing support to states through guidance, technical assistance, and funding, as well as providing certain direct assistance to private entities and individuals, including through several pandemic relief legislations.

The scale and nature of the pandemic have prompted some commentators to call for the imposition of public health orders at the federal level. In their view, coordinated federal action, rather than a patchwork of state-level orders, is the more effective approach to addressing COVID-19, given that the virus that causes COVID-19 is highly transmissible and can cause serious illness in some people. Commentators have considered whether Section 361 of the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) could serve as a source of authority for such federal executive action. Section 361 authorizes the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS Secretary)—who, in turn, delegated the authority to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA)—to issue regulations “necessary” to prevent the foreign and interstate spread of communicable diseases

In September 2020, the CDC—in the broadest invocation of its Section 361 authority to date—issued an order that nationally halted residential evictions for certain tenants under specified conditions. The CDC concluded that this eviction moratorium was necessary to prevent the interstate spread of COVID-19 because evictions could lead a sizeable portion of the population to become homeless or to relocate to new congregate living situations that increase the risk of COVID-19 transmission. The CDC’s order—which could be characterized as both a public health and an economic regulation—could raise larger questions about the scope of agency authority under Section 361, including the CDC’s authority to implement transmission control measures that have broader economic implications...."
CDC Authority 

Income and Poverty in the United States: 2019

"

Download Income and Poverty in the United States: 2019 [PDF - 1.2 MB]

This report presents data on income, earnings, income inequality, and poverty in the United States based on information collected in the 2020 and earlier Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplements (CPS ASEC) conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau.
Highlights:
Income: 

• Median household income was $68,703 in 2019, an increase of 6.8 percent from the 2018 median of $64,324 (Figure 1 and Table A-1).
• The 2019 real median incomes of family households and nonfamily households increased 7.3 percent and 6.2 percent from their respective 2018 estimates (Figure 1 and Table A-1). This is the fifth consecutive annual increase in median household income for family households, and the second consecutive increase for nonfamily households.
• The 2019 real median incomes of White, Black, Asian, and Hispanic households all increased from their 2018 medians (Figure 1 and Table A-1).
• Real median household incomes increased for all regions in 2019; 6.8 percent in the Northeast, 4.8 percent in the Midwest, 6.1 percent in the South, and 7.0 percent in the West (Figure 1 and Table A-1)..."
  Income and poverty 

Poverty in the United States in 2019

"Calendar year 2019 was the last full year before the start of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, and the last year of the economic expansion since the Great Recession. The strength of the U.S. economy in 2019 was reflected in low poverty rates—the percentage of the population living in poverty (economic hardship characterized by low income)—for the nation and by demographic group.

While the 2019 poverty estimates do not reflect people’s incomes during the pandemic, the pandemic affected survey data collection for that year, which took place February-April 2020. Instead of a combination of in person interviews and telephone interviews, only telephone interviews were conducted due to social distancing restrictions. That affected the estimates because some respondents were harder to reach by phone than in person, less likely to respond to a telephone interview than an in-person interview, or less likely to respond for other reasons. The increased rate of non response affected persons with low incomes to a greater degree than persons with high incomes. That means that while poverty in 2019 was at or close to a historic low, it was likely not as low as the official estimates suggest.

Bearing the above caveats in mind, the poverty rate in the United States was estimated to be 10.5% in 2019, down from 11.8% in 2018. This was the fifth year in a row that the poverty rate declined. The decline in poverty was broad based, affecting many demographic groups and occurring in every region of the country. The estimated poverty rate fell

 both for women (11.5% in 2019, from 12.9% in 2018) and men (9.4%, from 10.6%);

 among families with a female householder and no spouse present (22.2% in 2019, from 24.8% in 2018), the latest of a series of historic or near-historic lows for this group;

 among Hispanics (15.7% in 2019, from 17.6% in 2018), Whites not of Hispanic origin (7.3%, from 8.1%), Blacks (18.8%, from 20.8%), and Asians(7.3%,from 10.1%);

 for both full-time workers (2.0% in 2019, from 2.3% in 2018) and non workers (26.4%, from 29.7%); and

 in 23 states and the District of Columbia.

Work reduces the estimated likelihood of being in poverty but does not eliminate it entirely: 39.2% of poor 18 to 64-yearolds had jobs in 2019. Furthermore, poverty is measured using the needs and resources from the entire family, meaning that nonworkers in poverty may be living with working family members. Among 18- to 64-year-olds without jobs estimated to be living in poverty, 19.2% lived in families where someone else worked..."
Poverty 

Working Together to Reduce Black Maternal Mortality

"Black Maternal Health Week is recognized each year from April 11-17 to bring attention and action in improving Black maternal health. Take these steps to reduce risks of pregnancy-related complications and deaths.

Most Pregnancy-Related Deaths are Preventable

Each year in the United States, about 700 people die during pregnancy or in the year after. Another 50,000 women each year experience severe pregnancy complications that can cause serious consequences for a woman’s health. Every pregnancy-related death is tragic, especially because two in three of them are preventable. Recognizing the warning signs and providing timely treatment and quality care can prevent many pregnancy-related deaths.

Racial Disparities Exist

Black women are three times more likely to die from a pregnancy-related cause than White women. Multiple factors contribute to these disparities, such as variation in quality healthcare, underlying chronic conditions, structural racism, and implicit bias. Social determinants of health have historically prevented many people from racial and ethnic minority groups from having fair opportunities for economic, physical, and emotional health.

Working Together to Reduce Black Maternal Mortality

During Black Maternal Health Week, learn how you can support pregnant people in your life to reduce factors that contribute to pregnancy-related complications and death.

Pregnant people and their families can:

• Talk to a healthcare provider if anything doesn’t feel right or is concerning.
• Know and seek immediate care if experiencing an urgent maternal warning signs, including severe headache, extreme swelling of hands or face, trouble breathing, heavy vaginal bleeding or discharge, overwhelming tiredness, and more. These symptoms could indicate a potentially life-threatening complication.
• Document and share pregnancy history during each medical care visit for up to one year after delivery.
• Maintain ongoing healthcare and social support systems before, during, and after pregnancy.

Healthcare providers can:

• Help patients manage chronic conditions like diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, and obesity.
• Listen to pregnant and postpartum people’s concerns, and communicate with patients about urgent maternal warning signs.
• Use tools to flag warning signs early so women can receive timely treatment.external icon
• Coordinate ongoing healthcare for women before, during, and after pregnancy..."
  Black maternal mortality 

Dog health

"Dogs can have many positive effects on the lives of their owners. They influence social, emotional, and cognitive development in children, promote an active lifestyle, provide companionship, and have even been able to detect oncoming epileptic seizures or the presence of certain cancers. Dogs can also help to relieve stress and anxiety in people. Around 38% of US households are estimated to have one or more dogs.

Although dogs can be beneficial to the health and wellbeing of their owners, people should be aware that dogs of any age, including puppies, can sometimes carry harmful germs that can make people sick. Germs from dogs can cause a variety of illnesses, from minor skin infections to serious illnesses. One of the best ways you can protect yourself from getting sick is to thoroughly wash your hands after handling, caring for, feeding, or cleaning up after dogs.

By providing your dog with routine veterinary care and following the Healthy People tips, you are less likely to get sick from touching or interacting with a dog..."
Dogs 

Income Tax Form 1040, 1913

"April 15 is the deadline for most Americans to file their Federal individual income tax returns. Passed by Congress on July 2, 1909, and ratified February 3, 1913, the 16th amendment established Congress's right to impose a Federal income tax. In 1913, due to generous exemptions and deductions, less than 1 percent of the population paid income taxes at the rate of only 1 percent of net income..."
Income tax 

Catalog of U.S. Government Publications (CGP)!

"The CGP is the finding tool for federal publications that includes descriptive information for historical and current publications as well as direct links to the full document, when available. Users can search by authoring agency, title, subject, and general keywords, or click on "Advanced Search" for more options.

The catalog offers you the option to find a nearby Federal Depository Library that has a particular publication or that can provide expert assistance in finding and using related U.S. government information. Click on the title of interest from your search results list. Then click on the Locate in a Library link within the displayed record.

Also try our federated search engine MetaLib to retrieve reports, articles and citations by simultaneously searching across multiple U.S. Federal Government database.."
Catalog Government Publications 

Articles of Agreement Relating to the Surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia

"On April 9, 1865, Generals Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee met in the parlor of a house in Appomattox Court House, VA, to discuss this surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia, which would end the Civil War. According to the terms, the men of Lee's army could return home in safety if they pledged to end the fighting and deliver their arms to the Union Army.."
Confederate Army Surrender 

Robotics and Workplace Safety

"We are in a period of rapid growth and advancements in robotics technology. Workplaces are increasingly using robots that enhance worker safety, health, and well-being. As robots are increasingly used in workplaces there are also safety concerns. Learn more about CDC’s role in robotics and workplace safety.

Robots are machines or automated technologies that can perform a series of actions to do everything from drive cars to perform surgery. Robots have existed in the workplace for years, but their presence on jobsites is increasing, as are their capabilities. Industrial robots are no longer confined to cages or cells. Today’s robots are designed to work alongside, move amongst, and be worn by human workers.

Taking on dangerous jobs

Robots can improve worker safety by doing work that is especially dangerous. They remove the worker from the hazard. Some examples include:

• Robots can inspect offshore oil rigs while people remain safely on shore.
• Drones might allow farmers to apply pesticide without exposure to chemicals.
• Service robots may help healthcare workers safely lift patients eliminating debilitating musculoskeletal injuries.
• A fleet of self-driving vehicles could reduce motor vehicle crashes among delivery workers.

Safety concerns

While robots have potential benefits for safety and productivity, there are also safety concerns. Working closely with robots such as in a warehouse or on a construction site, may pose different hazards. For example, a drone flying near a worker may also pose a threat to workers from distraction, however, there is little data on distraction and the potential for drones to cause a fall. Information about both the number and specific details of robot-related injuries to workers involving newer robotics technologies are not well-documented. This information is critical to inform policy changes and actions to improve worker safety and health.

CDC’s Center for Occupational Robotics Research

The Center for Occupational Robotics Research within CDC’s National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health is addressing the safety of today’s workers who use, wear, or work near robots. The Center focuses on:

• Evaluating the potential for robotics technologies to prevent worker injuries and musculoskeletal disorders
• Increasing understanding of human and robot interactions to ensure human worker safety
• Improving the ability to identify and track injuries involving robotics technologies
• Providing guidance on working safely with robotics technologies

The Center for Occupational Robotics Research works in partnership with academic researchers, trade associations, robotics manufacturers, employers using robotics technology, integrators who set-up robotic systems in workplaces, labor organizations, and other federal agencies. The Center addresses traditional robots and emerging technologies such as collaborative robots, mobile robots, powered exoskeletons, and remotely controlled or autonomous vehicles and drones..."
Robotics and safety 

Lettuce, Other Leafy Greens, and Food Safety

"Vegetables are an important part of a healthy, balanced diet. Leafy vegetables (called leafy greens on this page) such as lettuce, spinach, cabbage, kale, and bok choy, provide nutrients that help protect you from heart disease, stroke, and some cancers.

But leafy greens, like other vegetables and fruits, are sometimes contaminated with harmful germs. Washing does not remove all germs because they can stick to the surfaces of leaves and even get inside them. If you eat contaminated raw (uncooked) leafy greens, such as in a salad, you might get sick. To prevent contamination, leafy greens should be grown and handled safely at all steps in the journey from farm to fork.

• CDC estimates that germs on produce that is eaten raw cause a large percentage of U.S. foodborne illnesses (also called food poisoning).
• Leafy greens and other vegetable row crops are a major source of E. coli O157 infections.
• Other harmful germs found on leafy greens include norovirus, Salmonella, Listeria, and Cyclospora.

Although anyone can get food poisoning, these groups are more likely to get sick and to have a more serious illness:

• Adults aged 65 and older
• Children younger than 5 years
• People who have health problems or take medicines that lower the body’s ability to fight germs and sickness (a weakened immune system)
• Pregnant women

Leafy Greens Q&As

Read these Q&As to learn more about how leafy greens get contaminated and how to lower your chance of getting sick from eating leafy greens.

How common are foodborne disease outbreaks linked to leafy greens?

During 2014 to 2018, 51 foodborne disease outbreaks linked to leafy greens (mainly lettuce) were reported to CDC. Five were multistate outbreaks that led CDC to issue warnings to the public. Among those, two outbreaks were linked to packaged salads and two were linked to romaine lettuce. The specific type of leafy greens could not be determined for the other outbreak.

The 1,406 illnesses caused by those 51 outbreaks represent only a small proportion of all illnesses caused by contaminated leafy greens in those years. That’s because most foodborne illnesses are not part of a recognized outbreak. Some outbreaks never lead to consumer warnings because the food is no longer in stores, restaurants, or homes by the time it is identified as the source. Usually the source is not identified, and people might not even suspect that their illness was caused by contaminated food. Also, most outbreaks affect people in only one state, so local or state health departments lead work to identify, investigate, and communicate about those outbreaks.

Most recently, in 2019 and 2020, CDC investigated and issued public warnings on three multistate outbreaks linked to leafy greens..."
Leafy Greens 

Type 1 Diabetes and Pregnancy

"If you have type 1 diabetes and you’re thinking about having a baby, planning before you become pregnant is important. Learn how you can stay healthy and help prevent health problems for you and your baby before, during, and after pregnancy.

Deciding to start a family is an exciting time! It can also be overwhelming. It’s natural to have questions about how to keep yourself and your baby healthy during pregnancy, especially if you have type 1 diabetes.

Women with type 1 diabetes can have a healthy pregnancy. Having a plan to manage your diabetes before, during, and after your pregnancy will help keep you and your baby healthy.

Before You Get Pregnant

Use this planning checklist pdf icon[PDF – 887KB] to learn how you can boost your health and get ready for pregnancy. Being in good overall health before you become pregnant is important.

Manage your blood sugar. Many doctors will recommend that you reach and keep your A1C goal for a few months before becoming pregnant.

Review your medicines. Some medicines and supplements aren’t safe to use while pregnant. You should speak with your health care team about each medicine and supplement you take before you get pregnant. Don’t stop taking prescribed medicines without talking to your doctor first.

View this guide to planning a pregnancyexternal icon with type 1 diabetes for more info.

Your insulin needs may change throughout your pregnancy. Be sure to talk to your doctor about how to manage your blood sugar.

During Your Pregnancy

As soon as you find out that you’re pregnant, work with your medical team to manage your blood sugar and head off complications.

During your pregnancy, you and your doctors will adjust your diabetes management plan, so it’s important that you trust your team and feel free to reach out to them. If you don’t have these health care specialists as part of your diabetes care team already, consider looking for:

• An endocrinologist (a doctor who treats hormone conditions, including diabetes). You may want to find one who specializes in caring for pregnant women with diabetes.
• An obstetrician (a doctor who treats pregnant women). Your pregnancy may be considered high risk because of your diabetes. If that’s the case, you may want to find an obstetrician who takes care of women with high-risk pregnancies.
• A diabetes educator who can help you manage your diabetes during pregnancy.

Here are a few things to keep in mind:

Keep your A1C levels on target. Blood sugar levels that stay high during pregnancy may cause your baby to grow too large (macrosomia) or harm the early development of organs and lead to birth defects.

Know your risks. Women who have type 1 diabetes can have a safe pregnancy and a healthy baby, but it’s important to monitor diabetes complications that could worsen throughout pregnancy, such as high blood pressure, vision loss, and kidney disease. Other risks include:

• Preecalampsia – high blood pressure that can damage the liver and kidneys.
• Insulin resistance – when insulin is less effective at lowering your blood sugar.
• Miscarriage.
• Macrosomia – a larger-than-average baby. This can lead to a more difficult delivery.
• Birth defects that may affect your baby’s heart, brain, spine, kidneys, digestive system, limbs, and mouth.

Read more about possible risks during pregnancy.

Be aware of changing insulin needs. Your insulin needs may change throughout your pregnancy. Low blood sugar is common in women with type 1 diabetes. Check with your health care team about how much insulin you need and how often you need it..."
Diabetes and pregnancy 

Be #VaccineReady this National Minority Health Month

"Every April, we observe National Minority Health Month by raising awareness about health disparities that affect people in racial and ethnic minority groups. The COVID-19 pandemic continues to highlight these inequities. This National Minority Health Month, learn how to be “vaccine ready” to help protect yourself and others. 

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to highlight inequities that impact the physical, social, and emotional health of people in some racial and ethnic minority groups. These groups experience disproportionate burdens from COVID-19. Long-standing systemic health and social inequities have led to barriers at all levels of society that put many people, including many people from some racial and ethnic minority groups, at increased risk of getting sick and dying from COVID-19.

COVID-19 poses additional challenges for people who lack healthcare resources and access to culturally relevant information about getting a COVID-19 vaccination. Getting vaccinated against COVID-19 is an important thing you can do to help protect yourself and others and bring this pandemic to an end.

Take steps to make sure you, your family, and your community are “vaccine ready.”

• Get the facts about COVID-19 vaccines. Everyone should have access to trustworthy vaccine information. CDC’s website explains COVID-19 vaccine efficacy and safety and provides information for specific groups. Learn more about the different types of COVID-19 vaccines.
• Share accurate vaccine information. Confidence in the vaccines leads to more people getting vaccinated, which leads to fewer COVID-19 illnesses, hospitalizations, and deaths. Help your friends and family address their uncertainty with clear and understandable information. CDC’s Vaccinate with Confidence strategy reinforces CDC’s activities to increase confidence in COVID-19 vaccines by building trust that patients, parents, or providers have in recommended vaccines;​ providers who administer vaccines; and processes and policies that lead to vaccine development, licensure, manufacturing, and recommendations for use.​
• Get vaccinated when you are eligible. Learn how to register for vaccination. Once you are fully vaccinated against COVID-19, you can begin to do many of the things that you had stopped doing because of the pandemic.
• Practice COVID-19 safety measures. Because of the new COVID-19 variants and many people are not yet vaccinated, it is critical to continue taking precautions to prevent COVID-19 in many situations, including in public. Wear a mask, stay six feet apart, avoid crowds and poorly ventilated spaces, and wash hands often..."
  Vaccine and minority health 

Domestic Travel During COVID-19

"Updated Information for Travelers

• Fully vaccinated travelers are less likely to get and spread COVID-19.
• People who are fully vaccinated with an FDA-authorized vaccine can travel safely within the United States:
  • Fully vaccinated travelers do not need to get tested before or after travel unless their destination requires it
  • Fully vaccinated travelers do not need to self-quarantine
• Fully vaccinated travelers should still follow CDC’s recommendations for traveling safely including:
  • Wear a mask over your nose and mouth
  • Stay 6 feet from others and avoid crowds
  • Wash your hands often or use hand sanitizer

CDC recommends delaying travel until you are fully vaccinated, because travel increases your chance of getting and spreading COVID-19. If you are not fully vaccinated and must travel, follow CDC’s recommendations for unvaccinated people.

CDC will update these recommendations as more people are vaccinated, as rates of COVID-19 change, and as additional scientific evidence becomes available.

This guidance applies to travel within the United States and U.S. territories.

Domestic Travel Recommendations for Fully Vaccinated People

People who are fully vaccinated with an FDA-authorized vaccine can travel safely within the United States.

If you are fully vaccinated, take the following steps to protect others if you travel:

Have You Been Fully Vaccinated?

People are considered fully vaccinated:

• 2 weeks after their second dose in a 2-dose series, such as the Pfizer or Moderna vaccines, or
• 2 weeks after a single-dose vaccine, such as Johnson & Johnson’s Janssen vaccine

If you don’t meet these requirements, you are NOT fully vaccinated. Keep taking all precautions until you are fully vaccinated.

If you have a condition or are taking medication that weakens your immune system, you may NOT be fully protected even if you are fully vaccinated. Talk to your healthcare provider. Even after vaccination, you may need to continue taking all precautions.

• During Travel
  • Wear a mask over your nose and mouth. Masks are required on planes, buses, trains, and other forms of public transportation traveling into, within, or out of the United States and in U.S. transportation hubs such as airports and stations.
  • Avoid crowds and stay at least 6 feet/2 meters (about 2 arm lengths) from anyone who is not traveling with you.
  • Wash your hands often or use hand sanitizer (with at least 60% alcohol).
• After Travel
  • Self-monitor for COVID-19 symptoms; isolate and get tested if you develop symptoms.
  • Follow all state and local recommendations or requirements.

You do NOT need to get tested or self-quarantine if you are fully vaccinated or have recovered from COVID-19 in the past 3 months. You should still follow all other travel recommendations..."
Travel during COVID-19 

Mergers and Acquisitions in Digital Markets

"Some Members of Congress have expressed concern about mergers and acquisitions in digital markets, specifically those involving “Big Tech”—Alphabet (Google), Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Microsoft. Mergers can be separated into three categories: (1) a merger between competitors (i.e., horizontal merger), (2) a merger with a firm in the supply chain (i.e., vertical merger), and (3) a merger with a firm in an unrelated or adjacent market. Some Members have specifically raised concern about Big Tech companies’ acquisitions of nascent firms, which can occur across all three categories. A merger could potentially increase or decrease competition in digital markets, depending on the characteristics of the markets involved.

Section 7 of the Clayton Act prohibits mergers whose effect “may be substantially to lessen competition, or to tend to create a monopoly” (15 U.S.C. §18). Citing this law, the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice (DOJ), the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), state attorneys general, and private parties can challenge mergers. Merging parties that meet certain conditions must file a premerger notification with the FTC and DOJ under the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvement Act of 1976 (HSR Act). After investigating a proposed merger, the agencies can (1) allow the transaction to proceed unchallenged, (2) allow the transaction to proceed after entering a consent decree with the merging parties with conditions to maintain competition in the market, or (3) seek to stop the transaction by filing suit in federal court. The FTC and DOJ have not sued to block a proposed merger involving Big Tech since 2000; during this time, the Big Tech companies acquired at least 710 companies..."
Mergers and acquisitions 

Biometric Technologies and Global Security

"Biometric technologies use unique biological or behavioral attributes—such as DNA, fingerprints, cardiac signatures, voice or gait patterns, and facial or ocular measurements— to authenticate an individual’s identity. Although biometric technologies have been in use for decades, recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) and Big Data analytics have expanded their application. As these technologies continue to mature and proliferate, largely driven by advances in the commercial sector, they will likely hold growing implications for congressional oversight, civil liberties, U.S. defense authorizations and appropriations, military and intelligence concepts of operations, and the future of war.

How are biometric technologies being used today?

Biometric technologies are currently used for a number of congressionally authorized or mandated security applications throughout the U.S. government. For example, the Aviation and Transportation Security Act of 2001 (P.L. 107-71) granted the Transportation Security Administration the authority to employ biometrics for passenger screening and airport access control. Similarly, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108- 458) required the Department of Homeland Security to operate a biometric entry and exit data system to verify the identity of foreign nationals seeking to enter or exit the United States. These applications are intended to expedite screening processes and reduce human error rates.."
Biometric technology